PNAS | Seven studies using experimental and naturalistic methods reveal that
upper-class individuals behave more unethically than lower-class
individuals. In studies 1 and 2, upper-class individuals were more
likely to break the law while driving, relative to lower-class
individuals. In follow-up laboratory studies, upper-class individuals
were more likely to exhibit unethical decision-making tendencies (study
3), take valued goods from others (study 4), lie in a negotiation (study
5), cheat to increase their chances of winning a prize (study 6), and
endorse unethical behavior at work (study 7) than were lower-class
individuals. Mediator and moderator data demonstrated that upper-class
individuals’ unethical tendencies are accounted for, in part, by their
more favorable attitudes toward greed.
Which social class is the more likely provenance of
unethical behavior, the upper class or the lower class? Examining how
social class is associated with unethical behavior, or actions that harm
others and are illegal or morally objectionable to one's community (1),
would shed light on behaviors such as cheating, deception, or breaking
the law that have important consequences for society. On the one hand,
lower-class individuals live in environments defined by fewer resources,
greater threat, and more uncertainty (2, 3).
It stands to reason, therefore, that lower-class individuals may be
more motivated to behave unethically to increase their resources or
overcome their disadvantage.
A second line of reasoning,
however, suggests the opposite prediction: namely, that the upper class
may be more disposed to the unethical. Greater resources, freedom, and
independence from others among the upper class give rise to self-focused
social-cognitive tendencies (3⇓⇓⇓–7),
which we predict will facilitate unethical behavior. Historical
observation lends credence to this idea. For example, the recent
economic crisis has been attributed in part to the unethical actions of
the wealthy (8).
Religious teachings extol the poor and admonish the rich with claims
like, “It will be hard for a rich person to enter the kingdom of heaven”
(9).
Building upon past findings, in the present investigation we tested
whether upper-class individuals—relative to lower-class individuals—are
more likely to engage in unethical behavior, and whether their attitudes
toward greed might help explain this tendency.
Social
class, or socioeconomic status (SES), refers to an individual's rank
vis-à-vis others in society in terms of wealth, occupational prestige,
and education (2, 3). Abundant resources and elevated rank allow upper-class individuals increased freedom and independence (4), giving rise to self-focused patterns of social cognition and behavior (3). Relative to lower-class individuals, upper-class individuals have been shown to be less cognizant of others (4) and worse at identifying the emotions that others feel (5).
Furthermore, upper-class individuals are more disengaged during social
interactions—for example, checking their cell phones or doodling on a
questionnaire—compared with their lower-class peers (6).
